Occupational health and safety - SUM: Sustainability Management Wiki

Authors: Vlad-Ștefan Nechita, Yuqing Zhao
Edited by: Finja Eiting, Yasmin Gruner, Jennifer Häusler, Marie Hennecke, Gesa Schmidt, Janine Bekel, Denise Ebel, Nele Eilers, Annalena Klauck
Last updated: December 30, 2022

1 Motivation and definition

Evidence about the connection between employee health and corporate success is expanding and appears to be conclusive. Employee well-being has a significant influence on several company metrics. For example, poor mental health and stress are the leading causes of long-term absences in the workplace, according to a recent CIPD survey. It is also one of the main reasons why people leave their employment.

The subject of health within company is part of the domain of occupational health and safety (OHS), which is defined as the science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards that may occur in or around the workplace and endanger workers’ health and well-being, while considering the potential impact on surrounding communities and the general environment. This domain is unavoidably broad, including a wide range of disciplines and occupational and environmental risks. To organize and execute all the building blocks that make up national OSH systems so that both workers and the environment are protected, a wide range of structures, skills, knowledge, and analytical powers is required.¹^,²

In response to social, political, technical, and economic developments, OHS’s scope has progressively and steadily expanded. Globalization of the world economy and its ramifications have been viewed as the most powerful drivers for change in the workplace and therefore for the scope of corporate health, both positively and negatively, in recent years.¹^,² Liberalization of world trade, rapid industrialization, significant developments in transportation and communication, shifting employment patterns, changes in work organization practices, different employment patterns for men and women, and the size, structure, and life cycles of enterprises and new technologies can all result in new types and patterns of hazards, exposures, and risks.³ Demographic shifts and population movements, as well as the stresses they place on the global environment, can impact workplace safety and health.

It is no coincidence that the protection of workers against work-related illness, disease, and injury, as enshrined in the International Labour Organization (ILO)’s Preamble to the Constitution, has been central to the organization’s Fundamental Principles of Occupational Health and Safety since its founding in 1919 and continues to be. Corporate health is a critical component of creating long-term good working conditions and strong safety cultures. Nearly 80% of the ILO standards and instruments are concerned with matters of workplace safety and health, either entirely or partially.¹^,²

The goal of occupational health services within a company is to make working conditions healthy and safe for employees, companies, governments, and the general public. Despite its apparent simplicity and obviousness, this concept has struggled to achieve widespread acceptance.⁴ Hundreds of millions of people throughout the world are engaged in working circumstances that are hazardous to their health.

In industrialized nations, a rising number of employees are complaining about psychological stress and overwork. Insomnia, sadness, tiredness, and burn-out syndromes have all been linked to these psychological variables.³ With few exceptions, about 5%–10% of employees in poor countries and 20%–50% of workers in developed nations are estimated to have access to competent occupational healthcare.⁵ Even in advanced economies, many work locations are not regularly assessed for occupational health and safety.

2 Measurement

In corporate health, two kinds of health need to be managed: mental health and physical health. Employees who are in good mental and physical health at work are more productive, which greatly influences how a company operates. According to the Stevenson–Farmer review commissioned by the UK government, poor mental and physical health at work costs businesses £33 billion to £42 billion each year.⁶ Any company that wants to prioritize and promote workplace health should first be able to quantify what it wants to manage.

Whether a company is considering wellness program alternatives or currently has a program in place, measuring and tracking employee health and wellness is critical. When it comes to employee well-being, there are numerous aspects to consider, and it can be difficult to link one behavior to a certain consequence.⁷ However, assessing many elements from diverse perspectives might be beneficial. The most important measures in this case, according to different studies, are as follows:

Number of reported accidents and incidents: This lagging metric provides the organization with a high-level standard for determining whether safety is improving or deteriorating. The firm must also convert the number of accidents/incidents to a ratio per employee, i.e., 0.0001 accidents per employee, in addition to monitoring the number of accidents/incidents. During times of transition – new processes, new machinery, etc. – the firm must also pay particular attention to health and safety.⁸

Lost-time injury frequency rate: This metric measures the number of injuries that result in missed time per million hours worked. A lost-time injury frequency rate (LTIFR) of 8, for example, indicates that 8 lost-time injuries occur per million hours worked.⁸ To calculate the LTIFR, the company multiplies the number of lost-time injuries by 1,000,000 and divides the result by the total number of hours worked inside the firm.

Lost-time injury incidence rate: This is a measure of occurrences over a set length of time for a set number of individuals. To compute the lost-time injury incidence rate (LTIIR) for 1,000,000 individuals, the company multiplies the number of incidents by 100 and divides by the number of people.⁸ For example, if the firm has 3 incidents (300 = 3 × 100), the obtained LTIIR will be 0.3 after it is divided by the number of persons, which means the company has 0.3 LTIs for every 100 individuals.

Equipment breakdowns: A company can impact both safety and production by measuring the number of equipment breakdowns and setting a reduction target. When key equipment fails, activity typically halts.⁸ Most significantly, because a substantial number of events are caused by the quality of the equipment utilized, this is a strong indication that it will play a significant part in incident reduction.

Employee perception of management commitment: Regular surveys are used to assess this measure of health and safety, allowing a company to determine if workers believe that their daily work and management objectives are on the same track. Researchers confirm that when people recognize a link between what they do and the “big picture,” they are more likely to follow procedures and directions.⁸

Average overtime hours per person: This is a useful indicator for determining how much time someone works outside of typical working hours. The idea is that if a firm maintains a low average, it is effectively managing workloads and decreasing the risk of workplace fatigue. This metric, in any case, depends on the type of business, as it is not relevant to all businesses, and the definition of overtime varies by firm.⁸ Furthermore, keeping track of how often overtime is used and by which workers may be a useful indicator of employee well-being, productivity, and possible stress problems, if the firm allows employees to work extra to fulfill their workloads during the week.

The company should examine overtime utilization by week, month, and year and then determine whether there are any trends or individual employees who use overtime at a higher rate than others. This might indicate that these employees have too much on their hands, contributing to high stress levels, or that they are finding it difficult to be productive during their usual working hours.⁹

Satisfaction with the environment: This is measured in surveys. It entails gathering input from employees on a variety of levels, from how pleased they are with their physical surroundings (desk, office, noise levels, buildings, restrooms, etc.) to how they perceive their emotional environment.⁸ Low ratings might suggest problems that are impacting employees’ health—sometimes physical, but more often mental.

Monthly health and safety prevention costs: Offering free health exams and tracking the findings in the workplace can benefit both the employee and the company. Staff will benefit from exams if an impartial assessor is utilized, but an organization may also get a holistic picture of its employees’ health and strive to improve it by introducing programs and enhancing the physical environment.⁸

This is also an expenditure used to reduce health and safety risks within a business. It will involve training as well as inspections and audits, all with the goal of providing a pleasant and safe working environment.

Productive days (percentage): This is a good counterpoint to the more pessimistic method of tracking things like sick days and time off due to accidents. This metric takes a more positive approach by recognizing the number of days of productive work completed as a percentage of the total available working hours.⁸ If a company has 10 employees and only 5 days are lost due to health and safety concerns, the percentage of productive days is 99.86% ([3645 days/ 3650 available days] × 100 = 99.86%).

Management trained in health and safety (percentage): This basic leading indicator can assist the company to avoid many potential mishaps and problems. It also assists the firm to determine the efficacy of its training methods.⁸ It is up to the company to define what health and safety means, but once this is done, it is only a matter of counting how many managers have been trained and representing that number as a percentage of the total.

Sick time utilization: If the firm provides sick time to its employees, it can track how much time is used each month or quarter and compare patterns over time. The company may observe seasonal changes over time that may be attributed to allergies or colds and flu.

Employees may come to work when they do not feel well to save their sick days for emergencies, which is something to keep in mind when tracking sick time. Even if they are well, some employees may use their sick days as an alternative kind of PTO.⁹ If the business has a use-it-or-lose-it policy, it could see an increase shortly before employees’ PTO runs out.

Turnover equation: Employee turnover rates may be a good indicator of employees’ stress levels, health, and productivity, as well as their job satisfaction and engagement.⁹

An unsatisfactory work/life balance was the second most common reason for people leaving their employment, according to HubSpot research. The fourth item on the list was poor well-being. Both causes were deemed preventable provided enough attention was paid to ensuring that employees had choices.⁹ Prevention can include encouragement to maintain a good work/life balance, assurance that employment is not causing health problems, and the capacity to deal with any health concerns that occur.

If the firm does not have software that automatically calculates the turnover rate, the percentage can be calculated by dividing the total number of individuals who leave the company in a particular period by the average number of employees during that time and multiplying the result by 100. To calculate the company’s average number of workers, it is necessary to multiply the number of employees at the start of the period by the number of employees at the conclusion of the period and divide by two (Figure 1).

3 Health management in companies

Employee health dictates the health of the business; therefore, health management is a major workplace concern. Furthermore, the health of a company’s leadership is directly linked to the quality of its decision-making, which will impact the organization’s attitudes and working environment. As a result, management and health are two concepts that are mutually compatible.¹⁰^,¹¹ Consequently, corporate health management is designed for both individuals and businesses. It has to be addressed on both a corporate and an individual level. The ultimate objective of this strategy is to establish a clear approach to health that takes into account the employees’ professional and personal lives.¹⁰^,¹¹ Furthermore, employees should harmoniously blend these two components to create a long-term life balance.

Nowadays, employees are facing more and more challenges. Aspects such as productivity, flexibility, and mobility, as well as constant accessibility and availability are not only desired, but have become principles. Work becomes the center of life for many people, which in most cases leads to a high level of stress. This stress affects the human psyche enormously and leads to high costs within the health system as well as within the company. Employees who suffer from mental illness are significantly less productive, have more absenteeism or may have to quit their job, which means that the company must fill this position again, which in turn is associated with further costs. To avoid this problem, the prevention of mental illness is becoming increasingly important and should be seen as an important task in sustainable operational management.¹²

The firm, on the other hand, has a dual function to play in the development of its corporate health management concept. It should supply managers with the management tools and information they require to better understand the company’s position. The business needs to stay aware that a desire to increase the amount of work needed from employees is typically a short-term strategy that jeopardizes the company’s long-term success. As a result, the firm should strive for optimization rather than maximization of both resources and effort.

The method will influence all sorts of malfunctions that may occur inside the business and the workplace, and during management of the employees. The health of the company’s management and consequently the organization’s long-term success, can only be assured by including these many factors in the equation and promoting the notion of work-life balance.

Managers who are disrupted by globalization and technological innovation might respond in a variety of ways, both professionally and personally.¹⁰^,¹¹ Although such reactions vary from person to person, they are always the result of excessive stress that causes an inability to manage a team in a high-pressure environment.

Many researchers argue that healthy employees are likelier to perform better when they are absent less frequently and that a successful healthcare program should also enhance job satisfaction.

Furthermore, human resources (HR) should refrain from interfering with employees’ health. Businesses can strike the perfect balance by considering the many choices for managing employee healthcare.¹⁰^,¹¹ With today’s limited budgets, making the case for implementing healthcare programs may be challenging, as evidenced by a 2013 study that found that 28% of HR practitioners aimed to reduce healthcare expenses.¹³ The direct return on investment is difficult to calculate, but there are many indirect advantages.

According to a 2014 study, absenteeism may be the most important motivation for employers to prioritize employee wellness. According to the CIPD, absenteeism costs businesses around £600 per employee each year, and it is a problem that many companies wish to address. Employees who are in excellent health are less likely to be absent from work.¹⁴

3.1 Measures

Companies can implement a series of measures to better manage the health and safety of their employees, including the following:

Prevent accidents: The most important expense that most businesses wish to diminish is the cost of work-related injuries and illnesses, which the UK HSE assessed as £14.3 billion in 2014/2015.¹⁵ Employee health may be improved in this case by making the workplace healthier and safer.

Offer healthcare benefits: Private healthcare, if included in the company’s employee benefits package, is an expensive but highly appreciated approach to managing healthcare.¹⁵ According to recent research on employee benefits, 50% of employees consider private medical insurance to be personally beneficial, compared to only 41% who consider that pensions are more important than healthcare insurance.¹⁶ As a result, providing private healthcare may have significant recruitment and retention benefits.

Review and improve workplace safety: In terms of employee health, workplace safety is critical. If workplace accidents are a problem, the firm should examine its health and safety policy, collect and monitor accident statistics, set targets for improvement, and analyze the workplace design and housekeeping strategy.

Promote a healthy lifestyle: The firm should take a less intrusive approach to encouraging a healthy lifestyle by organizing outdoor company events and providing healthy lunch alternatives for interested personnel.¹⁵ In this scenario, another measure is to take measures to reduce work stress. In 2014, stress-related absences increased in two-fifths of businesses.¹⁴ Acknowledging that employee stress is a genuine problem and making assistance, such as counseling or financial guidance, available to employees are examples of effective stress-reduction strategies that a business could take to improve its employees’ health.

Engage an occupational health adviser: Having a trained adviser may assist with specific health concerns and support an overall wellness program, whether the firm hires a full-time occupational health specialist or outsources the function.¹⁵

Occupational health can assist with the following: first, arranging preventative treatment to reduce illness and absence; second, arranging pre-employment medicals to identify problem issues; third, supporting successful returns to work for long-term sick employees; and last, improving workplace health and safety.

External healthcare providers may also provide expert assistance with designing and executing healthcare programs, and 39% of HR professionals use them for this purpose.¹⁷

3.2 Tools and methods

The basic health management process can be summarized as prevention and treatment of diseases as well as health maintenance and prevention of relapse after disease. Not only physical illnesses but also mental illnesses are important threats to people’s health nowadays; therefore, both must be taken into account.

With the development of science, culture, and human rights awareness, the content of health management for corporate employees continues to expand. For disease prevention, programs such as nutrition management, smoking cessation, weight control, stress management, and exercise programs, which aim to create healthy lifestyles are gradually being emphasized.¹⁷ In addition to countermeasures for health-threatening diseases, attention to pregnancy care and postpartum support for women, as well as customized care programs for employees with disabilities, have also been important in the management of diseases.¹⁷

In the case of Johnson & Johnson, for example, the newly developed Johnson & Johnson HWP approaches the management and intervention of major health-related events (e.g., illnesses, accidents, or injuries) before, during, and after the occurrence. The management activities designed therein span and coordinate company services between preventive medicine, workplace safety, and medical, disability, return-to-work, employee assistance, and health and medical benefits programs. The goal is to maximize employees’ ability to work, improve their productivity, and avoid the loss of employees and efficiency, etc., due to health problems.¹⁸

Modern and technological management programs and tools are actively being developed to coordinate the needs of corporate health management, which will only become more detailed and specific in the future. In the following section, the forms and methods of employee health management will be summarized and introduced, and some examples will be given in brief.

Companies can choose to learn from existing examples and follow common management approaches in the market while developing their own health management system. At the same time, with the development of the health service industry, the number of companies specializing in providing health management services has gradually increased, providing options for major companies.

How to carry out health management can also be related to the company’s size.¹⁹ For example, in many smaller companies that do not have specialized departments and experts in health management, the development and implementation of a corporate employee health program is the task of the HR department. For larger companies, their financial base is sufficient to support the outsourcing of tasks to specialized health management companies; meanwhile, the development of unique management systems adapted to the company’s situation is also becoming increasingly common.

However, the relationship to company size is not absolute, as the health management system is ultimately developed by the company according to its own characteristics. In Daimler’s case, OSH issues throughout the group are managed by the Health and Safety department, which is part of the HR division.²⁰ Nevertheless, as an enormous company, the time and resources that Daimler devotes to corporate health management are unparalleled by smaller companies.

Onboarding physical examinations, regular medical check-ups at work, and medical insurance are all basic elements and methods for implementing corporate health management. In addition, according to Kosharnaya’s summary of the study based on the HeadHunter Research Service survey, corporate health management should cover the following principles and activities:

“identifying risk factors (surveys, questionnaires, medical examinations which help to provide employees with information on the risk factors and allow them to understand the necessity, priorities and directions of systematic corporate health management);
promoting a healthy lifestyle and conditions for pursuing it (promotion through corporate announcement boards, corporate websites, leaflets and memos; individual conversations, presentations and conferences; introduction of Health Days, corporate sporting events, etc.);
improving corporate health and well-being (providing corporate discounts for medical treatment, psychological support, etc.);
conducting activities and programmes (programs) aimed at combating the most common problems;
mentoring (using mentoring as a motivational incentive and role model, identifying employees’ health problems and supplying support).”¹⁷

Technological advancement and the expansion of the internet has further helped companies to better achieve the above. Digital health management systems, cloud-based employee health data file management, followed by intelligent applications on PCs or smartphones, have made health management more and more lifelike and comprehensive.

Enterprise Health is committed to being the leading provider of occupational health IT solutions.²¹ It identified a need in the market for a web-based solution for occupational health and compliance management, so it combined the clinical information management experience with its expertise and skills on occupational health and compliance to progressively develop and refine its eponymous digital health management system.²¹ It is a standard, enterprise-wide employee health and compliance IT healthcare solution that integrates occupational health and compliance, employee engagement, and certified electronic medical records in an interoperable cloud-based platform dedicated to improving health, wellness, productivity, and efficiency in organizations.²¹

With the growing importance of smartphones for modern people, employee health management through mobile apps is becoming more relevant to users expecting irreplaceable convenience. Mercer, for its part, brings together essential aspects of employees’ well-being—physical, mental, social, and financial in a single easy-to-use application Ondo. Employees receive support across all dimensions of companies’ well-being strategies, resulting in happier, healthier people to drive better business performance.²²

4 Drivers and barriers

In this section, the driving and hindering factors for corporate health development are analyzed in terms of external and internal factors. Socio-cultural factors, laws and regulations, the economy, and technology are external influences, while the company’s own needs are internal factors.

4.1 Drivers

4.1.1 External drivers

Socio-Cultural: Access to a healthy and safe working environment, reasonable rest, and adequate health management and welfare are all employee rights.²³ With the continuous awakening and deepening of human rights awareness, the expansion of people-oriented concepts, and the moral requirements of society, the pursuit of health expands. This is reflected in the expansion of organizations’ occupational health and safety programs as socio-cultural arguments have an increasing impact on employers’ investment decision in OHS.²⁴

Legal: Both internationally and nationally, laws, regulations, and principles for employee health and a healthy work environment are constantly being established and improved. The protection of workers’ legal rights will not stop, and with the refinement and specificity of relevant laws and regulations, corporate health will also be driven forward. In section 7, the situation in different countries will be described, and some specific representative regulations will be listed.

Economic: Economic development first brought about the development of most companies. Large companies were the first to gain the strength to focus on the development of soft power, such as company culture, in addition to their focus on business. Economic progress brings huge demand for talent and fiercer competition in the employment market. The pursuit of high-profile talent by companies is intensifying; like the commodity market, the choice is gradually being taken into the hands of the job seekers. Whether a company has a good health management system can show in part its economic strength, company culture, and management style. The competition for talent is bound to promote the importance of health management in corporate management. Employees are likelier to be satisfied and work better when they know that the company cares about their health and wants to help improve their well-being, which will lead to improved morale, performance and retention.¹⁵

Technological: With the rapid development of technology and the internet, information technology has brought great convenience to all kinds of work. Digital information management makes it easy to obtain and manage employee health information, and artificial intelligence and big data analysis make it simpler and more accurate to define employees’ lifestyles and find potential health risks, while various mobile devices make it possible for hospitals to monitor patients’ health remotely. As mentioned, with the trend of information technology, digital management systems, as well as applications that can be applied on various portable devices, have greatly facilitated health management. Health information is provided by companies to help employees make healthier decisions through apps that help users eat healthily, count calories, manage their weight, monitor their exercise, quit smoking, deal with stress, and deal with chronic diseases.²⁵ By bringing the health concept closer to users’ lives and needs, various operations such as risk prevention and control can be carried out better.

4.1.2 Internal drivers

The growing interest in sustainability conveys to consumers that a company is not just about profit and that it is socially responsible.²⁶ Successful corporate health management can also contribute to sustainable development.

The benefits of a good health management system for an organization include, but are not limited to, improving the quality of products, processes, and services, leading to better workplace morale and employee recruitment and retention and helping to build a more positive image and reputation with customers, suppliers, and the community.²⁷ To meet the needs of business development, the positive impact of successful health management on companies cannot be ignored. Both active development and implementation and competition among companies on this topic will drive health management forward.

4.2 Barriers

4.2.1 External barriers

Even with all preparations, there is still the possibility of incidents, such as the coronavirus pandemic that is still having a huge impact worldwide, unpredictable weather, or the occurrence of other circumstances.

In the case of coronavirus, for example, the pandemic has been devastating for all kinds of corporate health management in the short term. In the long run, the pandemic has highlighted the importance of a well-developed health management system, and companies need to learn and keep in mind the emergency response lessons. As things stand, the pandemic will not end easily. As Nature magazine’s interviews with coronavirus immunologists, infectious disease researchers, and virologists show, nearly 90 percent of respondents believe that coronavirus will become endemic—meaning that it will continue to spread in pockets of the global population for years to come.²⁸ This also requires companies to add it to their considerations when restoring order and further improving their health management systems and to develop measures to protect worker health. In this regard, along with government controls, many companies have already demonstrated their ability to respond well. In connection with the Corona pandemic, the nature of work has also changed in some areas; home office in particular has increased sharply in occupations where this is possible.¹⁰¹ However, increased or even complete home office work poses a noticeable challenge to the physical and mental health of many employees, which companies must address in the context of occupational health and safety.¹⁰² This is because many employees suffer from the mental stresses of the home office, which are reflected in exhaustion and sleep disorders.¹⁰² To prevent such additional stresses, it is necessary for employees to be trained and sensitized to this by their employer. Companies should take appropriate precautions for their employees, especially with regard to the ergonomic design of their home workplaces and the independent organization of their daily work and workload.¹⁰³

The world’s first international standard for occupational health and safety, ISO 45001, sets the minimum standard of practice to protect employees worldwide. This standard, which builds on the success of earlier international standards in this area, provides a framework to increase safety, reduce workplace risks, and enhance health and well-being at work, enabling an organization to proactively improve its OSH performance.²⁹

In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ensures that employees work in a safe and healthy environment by setting and enforcing standards and providing training, outreach, education, and assistance.³⁰

The European Network for Workplace Health Promotion focuses on changing lifestyles, aging, corporate culture, including staff leadership, staff development, work-life balance, mental health and stress, wellness, CSR, nutrition, and health, etc., to promote the joint efforts of employers, employees, and society towards improving the health and well-being of workers in Europe.³¹

The Arbeitsschutzgesetze, which has been in effect in Germany since August 1996, firmly implements the EU directive on occupational health and safety and aims to protect and improve the health of all workers employed in Germany.³²

In Canada, Standard BNQ9700-800, which includes a series of workplace health promotion action programs, provides employers with a proactive and pragmatic approach to creating and maintaining a work environment that contributes to the health and well-being of employees, helps workers adopt healthy lifestyles, and protects worker health.³³

Laws, regulations, and guidelines related to corporate health management worldwide vary, but the main thrust is to regulate and guide the construction of healthy enterprises, improve the workplace, protect employee health, and enhance employee well-being. Companies around the world must look for appropriate corporate health management solutions that meet the different requirements of society, the country, and the company itself. As for international companies, differences between countries and regions should be anticipated and responded to as well.

4.2.2 Internal barriers

As the recipients of corporate health management, a lack of health awareness and self-protection awareness among corporate employees, as well as resistance caused by it, will greatly hinder its implementation. In this regard, enterprises should do their homework on employee health education, popularize health knowledge, instruct employees on healthy lifestyles and habits, and provide a health-promoting environment and conditions.

The enterprise’s economic capacity strongly determines the maximum limit of its health management. As mentioned, in small companies or start-ups, there are situations where the HR department has to perform this task because the company does not have a professional health management department.

In addition, some companies have increased difficulties or volumes of health management tasks due to the presence of unavoidable health threat factors in their work content. Workers in chemical and biological plants, as well as in the construction industry, have several times the risk of occupational diseases and face more health threats, which may be even fatal or incurable, compared to the general population. For example, silicon dioxide, the causative agent of silicosis, is the most abundant mineral in the Earth’s crust. Construction work, stone fabrication, foundry work, and mining are among the occupations at high risk for silicosis. According to the American Lung Association, approximately 2.3 million American workers are exposed to silica in the workplace, 2 million of whom are in the construction industry.³⁴

What the government can do to address this situation is to ban small, illegal, and unqualified companies and monitor the industry more closely. In the meantime, companies should provide more comprehensive health management and protect their employees as far as possible from threatening factors within their capabilities and, last but not least, help patients get medical help promptly.

References

1
Benjamin O. Alli (2008). ‘FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY, Second edition’, International Labour Organization 2008, Geneva.
2
International Labour Office (2008).
3
Diana GAGLIARDI, Alessandro MARINACCIO, Antonio VALENTI and Sergio LAVI-COLI (2012). ‘Occupational Safety and Health in Europe: Lessons from the Past, Challenges and Opportunities for the Future’, Department of Occupational Medicine, Italian Workers Compensation Authority – INAIL (formerly ISPESL). via Fontana Candida, 1-00040, Monteporzio Catone (Rome), Italy.
4
Robyn Correll, MPH (2021). ‘What Is Occupational Health and Safety?’, Medically reviewed by Jason DelCollo, DO Updated on February 2021, Retrieved from: https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-occupational-health-and-safety-4159865
5
International Labour Organization (2016). ‘Occupational Safety and Health Management System’, ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data, International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22.
6
Matt Page (2021), Managing Director, UK & Eire at BSI Assurance. ‘Discover the first international standard on psychological health, safety and well-being at work’, Retrieved from: https://www.mentalhealthatwork.org.uk/blog/discover-the-first-international-standard-on-psychological-health-safety-and-well-being-at-work/
7
The IoD’s Inclusive Business Report (2019). ISSUU, Open House 2019 on the road Retrieved from: https://issuu.com/institute-of-directors/docs/oh_2019_inclusive_action_pack
8
Pat Ordenes (2021). ‘Health & Safety KPI Examples – The 12 Key Metrics to Track’, KPIS for Health & Safety, cascade, Retrieved from: https://www.cascade.app/blog/kpis-health-and-safety
9
Joe McErlane (2019). ‘5 Ways to Measure Employee Health and Wellness’, Vital Signs – Employer Healthcare Insights, NEOPATH Health, Retrieved from: https://blog.neopathhealth.com/measure-employee-health-and-wellness
10
Pro Mind Consulting SA. (2021). ‘Corporate Health Management: Basic Principles and Tools’. HR4Free, Retrieved from: https://hr4free.com/en/Corporate-Health-Management/Basic-Concepts-and-Tools-in-an-Organizational-Context
11
HR4Free, 2021
12
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, Förderung der psychischen Gesundheit und des Wohlbefindens am Arbeitsplatz. Accessed on https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/themen/praevention/betriebliche-gesundheitsfoerderung/gesundheit-und-wohlbefinden-am-arbeitsplatz.html, (2022).
13
Imperial College Business School (2013)
14
CIPD (2014)
15
BrightHR (2020). ‘How to manage employee healthcare? When it comes to employee health, HR is playing an increasingly large role.’, Retrieved from: https://www.brighthr.com/articles/pay-and-benefits/health/managing-employee-healthcare/
16
Capita (2013). ‘Health spending per capita in selected developed countries in 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018 (in U.S. dollars)’, Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/246924/health-spending-per-capita-in-selected-developed-countries-2010/
17
Kosharnaya G. B., Danilova E. A., Marakaeva K. M. 2020. “Corporate employee health management system”. Siberian Socium, vol. 4, no. 2 (12), pp. 76-89. DOI: 10.21684/2587-8484-2020-4-2-76-89
18
Goetzel, R., Ozminkowski, R., Bruno, J.A., Rutter, K.R., Isaac, F., & Wang, S.S. (2002). The Long-Term Impact of Johnson & Johnson’s Health & Wellness Program on Employee Health Risks. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 44, 417-424.
19
Bonafede, M., Corfiati, M., Gagliardi, D., Boccuni, F., Ronchetti, M., Valenti, A., … & Iavicoli, S. (2016). OHS management and employers’ perception: differences by firm size in a large Italian company survey. Safety science, 89, 11-18.
20
Daimler AG. (2020). Occupational health and safety – Daimler Sustainability Report 2020. Daimler Sustainability Report 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://sustainabilityreport.daimler.com/2020/reporting/people/occupational-health-and-safety.html
21
Enterprise Health. (2021). About Us — Enterprise Health. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.enterprisehealth.com/company/about-us.
22
Mercer LLC. (2021). Ondo – the employee wellbeing and engagement app from Mercer. Uk.mercer.com. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.uk.mercer.com/ondo.html#.
23
Rossi, A. M., Meurs, J. A., & Perrewe, P. L. (Eds.). (2013). Improving employee health and well-being. IAP.
24
Miller, P. & Haslam, C. Why Employers Spend Money on Employee Health: Interviews with Occupational Health and Safety Professionals from British Industry. Saf. Sci. 47, 163–169 (2009).
25
Moore et al. (2013)
26
Landstorfer, E., & Groll, T. (2019). Sustainability in Business–What drives Corporate Social Responsibility?.
27
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2016). Recommended Practices for Safetyand Health Programs.
28
Phillips, N. (2021). The coronavirus is here to stay — here’s what that means. Nature.com. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00396-2.
101
Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut. Homeoffice. Was wir aus der Zeit der Pandemie für die zu-künftige Gestaltung von Homeoffice lernen können. (2021).
102
Feng, F. Wie beeinflusst das Homeoffice die psychische Gesundheit von Beschäftigten? TÜV-Verband https://www.tuev-verband.de/meldungen/homeoffice-psychische-gesundheit-der-beschaeftigten (2021).
103
Mojtahedzadeh, N., Rohwer, E., Lengen, J., Harth, V. & Mache, S. Gesundheitsfördernde Arbeitsgestaltung im Homeoffice im Kontext der COVID-19-Pandemie. Zentralblatt für Arbeitsmedizin, Arbeitsschutz und Ergono-mie 71, 69-74 (2021).
29
International Organization for Standardization. (2018). Occupational health and safety ISO 45001
30
United States Department of Labor. (n.d.). OSHA. Law and Regulations. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs.
31
ENWHP (n.d.) Workplace Health Promotion. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.enwhp.org/?i=portal.en.workplace-health-promotion.
32
Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. (1996). Gesetz über die Durchführung von Maßnahmen des Arbeitsschutzes zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit und des Gesundheitsschutzes der Beschäftigten bei der Arbeit (Arbeitsschutzgesetz – Arb-SchG). Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/arbschg/BJNR124610996.html.
33
Bureau de normalisation de Québec (BNQ). (n.d.) Healthy Enterprise. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.bnq.qc.ca/en/standardization/health-at-work/healthy-enterprise.html.
34
American Lung Association. (2020). Learn About Silicosis. Lung.org. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/silicosis/learn-about-silicosis.

1
Benjamin O. Alli (2008). ‘FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY, Second edition’, International Labour Organization 2008, Geneva.
2
International Labour Office (2008).
3
Diana GAGLIARDI, Alessandro MARINACCIO, Antonio VALENTI and Sergio LAVI-COLI (2012). ‘Occupational Safety and Health in Europe: Lessons from the Past, Challenges and Opportunities for the Future’, Department of Occupational Medicine, Italian Workers Compensation Authority – INAIL (formerly ISPESL). via Fontana Candida, 1-00040, Monteporzio Catone (Rome), Italy.
4
Robyn Correll, MPH (2021). ‘What Is Occupational Health and Safety?’, Medically reviewed by Jason DelCollo, DO Updated on February 2021, Retrieved from: https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-occupational-health-and-safety-4159865
5
International Labour Organization (2016). ‘Occupational Safety and Health Management System’, ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data, International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22.
6
Matt Page (2021), Managing Director, UK & Eire at BSI Assurance. ‘Discover the first international standard on psychological health, safety and well-being at work’, Retrieved from: https://www.mentalhealthatwork.org.uk/blog/discover-the-first-international-standard-on-psychological-health-safety-and-well-being-at-work/
7
The IoD’s Inclusive Business Report (2019). ISSUU, Open House 2019 on the road Retrieved from: https://issuu.com/institute-of-directors/docs/oh_2019_inclusive_action_pack
8
Pat Ordenes (2021). ‘Health & Safety KPI Examples – The 12 Key Metrics to Track’, KPIS for Health & Safety, cascade, Retrieved from: https://www.cascade.app/blog/kpis-health-and-safety
9
Joe McErlane (2019). ‘5 Ways to Measure Employee Health and Wellness’, Vital Signs – Employer Healthcare Insights, NEOPATH Health, Retrieved from: https://blog.neopathhealth.com/measure-employee-health-and-wellness
10
Pro Mind Consulting SA. (2021). ‘Corporate Health Management: Basic Principles and Tools’. HR4Free, Retrieved from: https://hr4free.com/en/Corporate-Health-Management/Basic-Concepts-and-Tools-in-an-Organizational-Context
11
HR4Free, 2021
12
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, Förderung der psychischen Gesundheit und des Wohlbefindens am Arbeitsplatz. Accessed on https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/themen/praevention/betriebliche-gesundheitsfoerderung/gesundheit-und-wohlbefinden-am-arbeitsplatz.html, (2022).
13
Imperial College Business School (2013)
14
CIPD (2014)
15
BrightHR (2020). ‘How to manage employee healthcare? When it comes to employee health, HR is playing an increasingly large role.’, Retrieved from: https://www.brighthr.com/articles/pay-and-benefits/health/managing-employee-healthcare/
16
Capita (2013). ‘Health spending per capita in selected developed countries in 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018 (in U.S. dollars)’, Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/246924/health-spending-per-capita-in-selected-developed-countries-2010/
17
Kosharnaya G. B., Danilova E. A., Marakaeva K. M. 2020. “Corporate employee health management system”. Siberian Socium, vol. 4, no. 2 (12), pp. 76-89. DOI: 10.21684/2587-8484-2020-4-2-76-89
18
Goetzel, R., Ozminkowski, R., Bruno, J.A., Rutter, K.R., Isaac, F., & Wang, S.S. (2002). The Long-Term Impact of Johnson & Johnson’s Health & Wellness Program on Employee Health Risks. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 44, 417-424.
19
Bonafede, M., Corfiati, M., Gagliardi, D., Boccuni, F., Ronchetti, M., Valenti, A., … & Iavicoli, S. (2016). OHS management and employers’ perception: differences by firm size in a large Italian company survey. Safety science, 89, 11-18.
20
Daimler AG. (2020). Occupational health and safety – Daimler Sustainability Report 2020. Daimler Sustainability Report 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://sustainabilityreport.daimler.com/2020/reporting/people/occupational-health-and-safety.html
21
Enterprise Health. (2021). About Us — Enterprise Health. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.enterprisehealth.com/company/about-us.
22
Mercer LLC. (2021). Ondo – the employee wellbeing and engagement app from Mercer. Uk.mercer.com. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.uk.mercer.com/ondo.html#.
23
Rossi, A. M., Meurs, J. A., & Perrewe, P. L. (Eds.). (2013). Improving employee health and well-being. IAP.
24
Miller, P. & Haslam, C. Why Employers Spend Money on Employee Health: Interviews with Occupational Health and Safety Professionals from British Industry. Saf. Sci. 47, 163–169 (2009).
25
Moore et al. (2013)
26
Landstorfer, E., & Groll, T. (2019). Sustainability in Business–What drives Corporate Social Responsibility?.
27
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2016). Recommended Practices for Safetyand Health Programs.
28
Phillips, N. (2021). The coronavirus is here to stay — here’s what that means. Nature.com. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00396-2.
101
Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut. Homeoffice. Was wir aus der Zeit der Pandemie für die zu-künftige Gestaltung von Homeoffice lernen können. (2021).
102
Feng, F. Wie beeinflusst das Homeoffice die psychische Gesundheit von Beschäftigten? TÜV-Verband https://www.tuev-verband.de/meldungen/homeoffice-psychische-gesundheit-der-beschaeftigten (2021).
103
Mojtahedzadeh, N., Rohwer, E., Lengen, J., Harth, V. & Mache, S. Gesundheitsfördernde Arbeitsgestaltung im Homeoffice im Kontext der COVID-19-Pandemie. Zentralblatt für Arbeitsmedizin, Arbeitsschutz und Ergono-mie 71, 69-74 (2021).
29
International Organization for Standardization. (2018). Occupational health and safety ISO 45001
30
United States Department of Labor. (n.d.). OSHA. Law and Regulations. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs.
31
ENWHP (n.d.) Workplace Health Promotion. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.enwhp.org/?i=portal.en.workplace-health-promotion.
32
Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. (1996). Gesetz über die Durchführung von Maßnahmen des Arbeitsschutzes zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit und des Gesundheitsschutzes der Beschäftigten bei der Arbeit (Arbeitsschutzgesetz – Arb-SchG). Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/arbschg/BJNR124610996.html.
33
Bureau de normalisation de Québec (BNQ). (n.d.) Healthy Enterprise. Retrieved 25 August 2021, from https://www.bnq.qc.ca/en/standardization/health-at-work/healthy-enterprise.html.
34
American Lung Association. (2020). Learn About Silicosis. Lung.org. Retrieved 27 August 2021, from https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/silicosis/learn-about-silicosis.